The Fame of Identity and the Laws of Reality: Fifteenth Week

Our word for the blog this week is “fame.” Johnson says this comes from φαμα (phama). The Liddell-Scott lexicon shows this Greek word to be the Doric form for φημη (phāmā). To Johnson’s credit he also gives the Doric attribution. The lexicographer simply states that “fame” means “Celebrity; renown” and “Report; rumour.” However, the Greek lexicon gives a more extensive use for φημη. Its possible usages include “utterance prompted by the gods, significant or prophetic saying,” “report, rumour,” “report of a man’s character, repute,” and “any voice or words, speech, saying.” The Greeks used φημη to designate a far broader range of meanings than we do today with “fame.” Johnson’s usages more closely mirror our own – indicating a withering away of the word through history.

Contemporary use of “fame” almost universally brings to mind celebrities – those celebrated and fawned over by their fans. In many ways “fame” is not a word taken particularly seriously by today’s world with its oft short-lived burst of intensity, lasting only until the next new celebrity comes to the fore. The Greek word had some significance but the etymologically connected English word has far less.

Perhaps this is indicative of words that represent ideas of shallow substance. It is reasonable to expect people to disregard the word as much as the thing it represents. Such is a segue to another interesting topic – what are words? In the most basic of senses words are combinations of letters of an alphabet so arranged to represent ideas of concrete things. When one says horse, one thinks of the animal commonly known by that designation. Contrastingly, when one says car, an automobile is brought to mind, though there are several common traits between the two. Cars and horses can carry people or loads to and from designated locations. Both can travel long distances and often at considerable speed.

Why do human beings not habitually confound the two words (of course only in their contemporaneous time period)? The obvious answer is that both words represent two uniquely different things, besides the fact that the words are constructed of different letters. The ability of human beings to form and use words in an unambiguous manner is evidence of the importance of the Law of Identity in the lives of mankind. Though easily taken for granted, the possession of individual properties by individual things is vital in preventing perpetual chaos. This characteristic of reality must not be disregarded or taken lightly. Failure to respect the strictures of identity always causes misfortune. Individual identity and individual reality are intimately intertwined, and one relies on the other for existence. I suppose one could say identity and its rules possess rather a lot of “fame” despite their sometimes being forgotten and left to obscurity.

 

John

Context, Context, Context: Fourteenth Week

This blog would be quite remiss in its purpose if it did not consider “etymology” as a weekly word of interest. Johnson offers this use concerning the origins of words, “The descent or derivation of a word from its original…” The lexicographer states “etymology is from the Latin word etymologia and a Greek compound of ετυμος (etumos) and λογος (logos). According to the Oxford Latin Dictionary the Latin term comes from ετυμολογια (etumologia), rendering the Latin a very near transliteration with the same meaning – word origin.

While it is true one should not define a word by its etymology, especially given the antiquity of many English terms, the origin of words does paint a picture of their evolution through use. Perhaps more importantly, etymology lays a groundwork for meaning. One can only stray so far from a thing’s structure before it is left behind and something else is being contemplated. So it is with word origins.

However, the final arbiter of word meanings is context. Finding and understanding the context of a passage is vital to knowing how that particular word or phrase is being used. A simplified exploration of context can be divided into two fronts: immediate and extended. In typical book format, immediate context deals with how a word is being used in a single sentence or at most a paragraph and may be limited to less than a paragraph if long or complex. Extended context considers how a word or phrase is used in a chapter or section and finally in the book as a whole. Mortimer J. Adler discusses context and its relation to the words of which it consists and that describe it. He writes in, How to Read a Book:

Most of the words in any English book are familiar words. These words surround the strange words, the technical words, the words that may cause the reader some trouble. The surrounding words are the context for the words to be interpreted. The reader has all the materials he needs to do the job. (p. 202, See the link to the right for the Adler book.)

It is in matters of context that most people make mistakes in understanding and the misinterpretation that follows. The antidote to such mistakes often can simply start with a good dictionary or lexicon. For English words the Oxford English Dictionary will almost always be the best option. The particular characteristic that sets this multi-volume work apart is its extensive use of chronologically sequenced quotations. Investigating the range of quotations offered reveals a broad multilayered context of usages. If the range of word usages are accurate the researcher should come away with a rather complete set of possible meanings from which to choose. If those findings are coupled with the context of the passage or book considered and etymological backgrounds are not ignored, proper word meanings are quite certain to be found. It is certainly worth saying again: Dictionaries offer usages, but contexts determine meanings.  

Until next week.

John

Secrets of the Riddle: Thirteenth Week

Our word this week is “enigma.” Johnson offers this meaning: “A riddle; an obscure question; a position expresses in remote and ambiguous terms.” The Greek from which the word comes is ἄινιγμα (ainigma). Greek lexicons offer these possible usages: “dark saying,” “riddle,” “an obscure thing,” and “indistinct image.” The New Testament describes the word as an obscure reflection in a mirror (1 Corinthians 13:12). This describes the idea exactly. One can see an image, but it is indistinct. This is just what a riddle is – the answer is in the question, but we cannot quite see it. Therein lies the fascination of riddles. A short riddle my father used to tell me when I was young goes like this:

            What’s round like a donut,

            Deep like a cup,

            And all the king’s men and all the king’s horses could never pull it up?

Since each line of the riddle uses common imagery, we feel the answer must be near at hand in our minds. But it remains just out of reach. Successful riddles evoke hope in us that we can surely find the answer. Perhaps we might say to ourselves, “Well, I know about men and horses, and I surely know about donuts and cups; so, I must know the answer.” But the answer is not so obvious. The answer to the little riddle above is: a well. A water well is round and deep and cannot be pulled up by might. Even the answer is simple. It is the means of getting to the answer that is difficult and intriguing.

This brings to mind something that remains an enigma to some – the power of the obvious. It is said that the best place to hide something is in plain sight. Why is this so? It is so because the brains of human beings do many things automatically. We have autofill as it were. An example is why common typos like the the or there for their are so easily overlooked and so hard to find in our own writing. Our brains automatically correct the error as we read. Interestingly, this accounts for almost all variations in the many Greek texts of the New Testament. From an age of hand-writing and hand-copying it is easy to see how such small differences exist in the manuscripts. Not to mention that the earliest manuscripts, the uncials, were written all in capitals with little or no spaces between words or punctuation. By the way, here is the sentence you just read in uncial form, albeit in English.

Nottomentionthattheearliestmanuscriptstheuncialswerewrittenallincapitalswithlittleornospacesbetweenwordsorpunctuation

The obvious and automatic are the keys to good enigmas or riddles – the ones that seem easy to solve but are not. As long as the enigmatist (also from Johnson, one who makes riddles) can make the lines seem obvious while maintaining their obscurity, he is well on his way to success.

 

The Finer Points of Selection: Twelfth Week

Johnson’s word this week is “eclogue.” He says this means “A pastoral poem, so called because Virgil called his pastorals eclogues.” The Greek etymology given is εκλογη (eklogā). This Greek noun means a selection or choice and according to Liddell, Scott, and Jones can indicate a selection from writings. This seems the context of the idea offered by Johnson concerning Virgil’s poems.

A note on the Greek word is of interest. Εκλογη can be understood in its two parts – the base word and the prefix. The prefix is εκ meaning in this context out. The base word is λογη and related to λεγω and λογας which mean respectively pick or collect and gathered or chosen. If the base and prefix are put together the resulting noun means that which is chosen (literally: out picked, out collected, out gathered, or out chosen). The prefix sets our word apart from the verbs from which it is related by showing that that which was picked was also set apart or picked-out. This is were an illustration drawn from youth may be helpful.

Children choosing teams is a typical playground scene. Two captains make choice from the other children gathered around them and one by one pick and then collect the chosen into separated teams. The difference between picked and picked-out or chosen and chosen-out is the same as the difference between calling a player’s name and moving the player into the chosen team. One may consider both actions inseparable and simply two steps making up one action. However, they are actually two distinct actions because both can stand on their own. One can be chosen but not moved and another could be moved but not chosen for the team. This sort of analytical thinking is required to understand the difference between λεγω, λογη, and εκλογη. The explanation given above does not preclude some overlap in meaning and use of the words from one Greek writer to another or variations in lexical entries, but it is a literal reckoning for the use of the prefix and a defense against useless redundancy and for nuance.  

Johnson does not offer a Latin background for our word this week, but it is particularly applicable to the meaning he gives. Lewis tells us the Latin word ecloga  means “a selection, consisting of the finest passages, from a written composition” and comes from εκλογη. From this, one can deduce that when εκλογη came into Latin the meaning was consolidated into a literary selections process, from which English absorbed it by way of French eglogue  as a near transliteration.

The absorption process is a powerful characteristic of English and contributes to the difficulty of mastering it. Of its power, Melvyn Bragg wrote, “…English’s most subtle and ruthless characteristic of all: its capacity to absorb others” (page 2, see link on the right). As I mentioned in an earlier post, the etymology of English words opens a long lineage of history through Greek, Latin, and French. Absorbing word history, and with it history in general, fortifies the structural integrity of English, lending it great staying power and flexibility. This is why it endures and why English is used by so many around the world. As is said of the mighty oak that weathered centuries of storm and gale because it bent to the wind, so the same should be said of English tongue.

Until next week,

John

The Hidden Logic of Common Sense: Eleventh Week

 

This week the blog considers the word “dialectic.” Johnson gives this word the Greek etymology διαλεκτικη (dialektikā) and defined as “Logical; argumental.” Greek διαλεκτικη (dialektikā) or διαλεκτικoς (dialektikos) has the general meaning of reasoned discourse and synonymous with λογικος (logikos) from which we get the English word logic.

Some may be hesitant at the term logic thinking such things reside only in the realm of the philosophers and academe, but anyone who has heard or read something and responded by saying, “Well, that doesn’t make any sense,” was probably using logic to parse the information and thinks of it simply as common sense. However, logic seems to come naturally only in parochial settings, for when someone is asked to explain why they consider something to be common sense, they often cannot articulate the reasons. Logic comes most often, among the general populace, as a reflex rather than measured response.

The three Laws of Thought are the beginning antidote to the inarticulation. These laws are: the Law of Identity, the Law of Excluded Middle, and the Law of Contradiction (Ruby, 262). The Law of Identity applies to things, propositions/statements, and, I suggest, to actions, at least in concept. The basic idea of the law is that if a thing has a certain property, it has it. If a certain thing has the properties of a human being, then that thing is a human being. If a statement has the properties of being true, then it is true. Whatever a thing is, it is and it is not something that it is not. This may sound cryptic or oversimplified but it is rather vital to understanding reality. When this law is ignored, ambiguity is sure to follow. Consider any word which one would like to choose. If that word does not describe certain properties and exclude all others, then it could stand for anything or all things, thus, making that word useless as a form of communication since it has no definite meaning. Without the Law of Identity, a work like Johnson’s is useless.

The Law of Excluded Middle states that a thing either has a certain property (or properties) or it does not. Every precise statement is true or non-true. There can be no middle ground between true and non-true as there can be no middle ground between x and non-x. It would be inaccurate to say there is no middle ground between 1.0 and 2.0. In fact, there is: 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, etc. The numerical quantity 1.1 has the properties of 1.0 plus 0.1. Though 1.1 has all the attributes of 1.0,  it also has the attributes of 0.1. Therefore, 1.0 and 1.1 are not the same – 1.1 is non-1.0. Again, this is not nit-picking, but rather a way of being precise – a way of seeing and understanding reality as it is, free of distortion.

The Law of Contradiction says that a thing cannot both have properties x and non-x at the same time and in the same respects. No statement can be both true and non-true at the same time and in the same respect. For example, is the statement, “All dogs are dogs and all dogs are green.” true or non-true? Some may interject that it is both. However, the question asked if the statement, as a whole, is true or non-true. It is non-true for the same reasons that 1.1 is non-1.0, though it contains the properties of 1.0.

Seeing the world through precise logical eyes takes practice – practicing such fundamentals as are outlined in this article. It could be argued that every dictionary and dictionary maker is a testament to the rightness of what this article propounds. Lexicography embraces a coveted assurance that every word has its own significance, however intimately related it is to another. Johnson built his life’s work on this truth – a truth held in common by an unspoken logic.

Until next week.

John

 

I have added a link on the right to Lionel Ruby’s Logic: An Introduction for additional reference for those so inclined.

Cynicks and Dogs -- One and the Same?: Tenth Week

 

The word for this week’s blog is “cynick.” Johnson says this comes from κυνικος (kunikos) meaning, “Having the qualities of a dog; currish; brutal; snarling; satirical.” Liddell and Scott agree with Johnson, saying  κυνικος means “dog-like.” The Oxford English Dictionary says its contemporary usage is to describe someone who is skeptical of good motives and manifests their skepticism as a “sneering fault-finder.” “Cynick” and its modern spelling of cynic paint a rather sad and off-putting picture of someone who is almost violently negative.

Interestingly, this word is used in the 250 BC Greek translation of the Hebrew Old Testament, commonly called the Septuagint or LXX, First Samuel chapter twenty-five, verse three. Of the man Nabal, the King James text says he was, “churlish and evil in his doings.” The Greek here is, “πονηρος εν επιτηδευμασιν και ο ανθρωπος κυνικος” or in English translation, “wicked in habits of life and man churlish (dog-like).” In English and Greek it is describing an evil and cynical man. Nabal was the fellow who spurned and besmirched David in his time of need, though he besought Nabal kindly and respectfully. It was only through the wise actions of Nabal’s wife Abigail that he avoided the deadly consequences of his foolishness. By the way, the name Nabal means fool or impious. I have often wondered if the name came to mean fool before or after the Nabal described by Samuel. The Hebrew word for Nabal  is used in the Book of Job in chapter two verse ten. Given that Job may be the oldest book of the Old Testament, it seems very possible that nabal meant fool before the man was born.

A snarling biting dog is an apt description of the person who refuses to see anyone or anything in a positive light. Just as any one would prefer to avoid such a vicious creature, so they would prefer to stay away from the cynic.

A few other “cyn” words nearby in Johnson are: “cyanthropy,” “cynarctomachy,” and “cynegeticks.” These three words mean (in the order just given): a type of insanity where one displays dog-like characteristics; bear baiting with a dog; and, the process of training and hunting with dogs. All these Johnson says comes from Greek words, alone or in combination. It may seem strange to modern minds to attribute such violence and distastefulness to dogs, given dogs’ favored status as beloved pets. However, in the not-so-distant past, animals seen today only as pets or at worst as abandoned waifs were not considered so uniformly as loving companions. In ages were men and beasts labored to survive and packs of semi-wild dogs were familiar at every garbage heap or other unsavory place of refuse, animals were not seen in the same kindly light prevalent today. This fact, perhaps shocking to some, is a useful lesson that life was much harder and required more physical and mental toughness than most societies require currently.

Until next week,

John

The Gift of William the Conqueror: Eighth Week

 

This week we shall start with “bipetalous.” Johnson says this word comes from “bis” from Latin and “πεταλον” (petalon) meaning “A flower consisting of two leaves.” It is not the definition to which I would like to draw your attention but the etymology. Johnson says this comes from Latin and Greek.

The combination of Latin and Greek as a historical beginning for an English word summons the question of what would the English language be without its connections to Latin and Greek and how did the connection evolve?

The answer mainly begins with the year 1066 and a Norman duke named William. In 1066, William of Normandy assembled his army and crossed the stormy winter seas of the North Atlantic to attack an underdefended England whose king was in the North fighting a usurping king from Norway, named Harald Hardrada. Hardrada was defeated at the Battle of Stamford Bridge. King Harold Godwinson and his exhausted English army rushed back to the South when word of the Norman invasion came to him. The Normans were too much for Godwinson. He was killed in battle and the throne went to William, now called the Conqueror.

At this point in our brief historical journey, you might rightly ask what this could possibly have to do with the English, Latin, and Greek languages. The key is that William brought the French language to England and made it the official language of the island. Oh, to be sure, English continued to be spoken, but instead of being washed away by French, English absorbed it and saw a rebirth that came to be known as Middle English which eventually became Modern English. The massive loan of French into English brought French etymology with it. Being a Romance language, French comes from Latin. Latin, in turn, derives much from Greek and was contemporary with it. A brief examination of Latin lexicon quickly shows the affinity Latin has with Greek. Word after word either comes from Greek or is akin to it. To open an English lexicon reveals the same affinity between English and French. Since one cannot have Modern English without French or French without Latin nor Latin without Greek, English has absorbed them all. With Latin and Greek came centuries of history from Rome and its Republic and its Caesars to Athens and the great orator Demosthenes. The history of Western civilization came into English with William when he crossed violent seas to distant shores hungry for power. He came to take a throne, but he brought a world larger than he knew to the Britons’ embattled coasts.

Until next week.

John

The Curious Background of "Bible": Seventh Week

The word for this week is “bible.” This is rather ubiquitous word with a background more curious than some may suspect. Johnson says this word comes from βιβλιον (biblion). Johnson says this means “a book.” This accords with the general meaning offered by reliable Greek lexicons. However, what Johnson does not mention is the background for βιβλιον. Liddell and Scott (mentioned last week) states that βιβλιον comes from βίβλος (biblos). This word identifies the slices of papyrus plant pith that was used to make the writing material we call papyrus or what the Greeks would have called βίβλος. The name of the end product, a book or properly a scroll, was bound up in the material from which it was made.

The work a day writing material of the ancient Hellenistic world (Greek world) was papyrus sheets made from the papyrus plant. This plant was very common along the Nile River and is still found in various places in the Middle East. The pith of the plant was taken from its outer rind and split into strips. These strips were laid alongside one another until the desired width was achieved. On these strips was laid another set perpendicular to the first and the two adhered to one another by pressure and being left to dry. The individual sheets, about twelve inches square, were polished and joined end to end to make scrolls. The draw back to papyrus sheets and scrolls is their lack of durability in damp conditions. This is why ancient scrolls have survived in places like Qumran, near the Dead Sea (hence the Dead Sea Scrolls), which is one of the hottest and driest places on Earth. Papyrus has also survived in the dry environments found in many places in Egypt.

Βιβλιον and βιβλος mean book. When one says “Holy Bible” the phrase really means holy book, though “bible” is a generic word. Its generic use can be seen in such possible titles such as “The Baker’s Bible” or “The Shooter’s Bible.” The first simply describes a book specific to baking and the latter to those who use firearms. It is the word Holy that distinguishes the Scriptures from other books. Interestingly, the terms Bible and Holy Bible are not found in the King James Bible, though the Greek root  βιβλίον  is found numerous times in reference to the books of both the Old and New Testaments, collectively and individually.

Should any be wondering if the English word paper comes from papyrus or πάπῡρος (papuros) in Greek, it does by way of Latin’s papyrus and through the French word papier. Modern paper, from which books (βιβλία) are made, shares few characteristics with ancient papyrus sheets. Today’s paper is made of plant cellulose multi-directionally bonded to form sheets of nearly infinite sizes. “Multi-directionally bonded” is just a fancy way of saying the plant fibers are pressed together in a soup where the fibers may point in any direction. Papyrus sheets were more akin to modern-day multi-layer plywood than modern paper.

Until next week,

John 

There is More to the Alphabet Than Just the ABCs: Sixth Week

The word for this week’s blog is “alphabet.” Johnson tells us it comes from ἄλφα (alpha) and βῆτα ­(bāta). These, of course, are the first two letters of the Greek alphabet. The Greek word for “alphabet” is ἀλφάβητος (alphabātos) – also coming from the first two letters of the Greek alphabet. This is an example of synecdoche, in this context meaning to put a part for the whole. That is, a part of the letters, the a and the b, stands for all of the letters. Interestingly, synecdoche, comes from the Greek root word συνεκδοχή (sunekdoxā) which means to understand one thing by/with another.

I suppose it might be helpful at this point in our blog posts to address the Greek alphabet by way of a chart. Since Greek words are featured every week, such a chart might be helpful to those not already familiar with Greek. The chart offered is from the college textbook I used when I learned Greek.

 

Greek Letter	Name	Transliteration	Sound
α	alpha	a	father
β	beta	b	bible
γ	gamma	g	ǥone
δ	delta	d	dog
ε	epsilon	e	met
ζ	zeta	z	daze (dz)
η	eta	ē (ā)	obey
θ	theta	th	thing
ι	iota	i	intrigue
κ	kappa	k	kitchen
λ	lambda	l	law
μ	mu	m	mother
ν	nu	n	new
ξ	xi	x	axiom (xs)
ο	omicron	o	not
π	pi	p	peach
ρ	rho	r	rod
σ, ς	sigma	s	study
τ	tau	t	talk
υ	upsilon	u	book
φ	phi	ph	phone
χ	chi	ch	loch
ψ	psi	ps	lips
ω	omega	o	tone

 

Learning the alphabet and its pronunciation is a very good starting point. If you know the alphabet, lexicons become open to you. Being able to read Greek text is not necessary to still benefit from lexical study. Two primary lexical sources are: Thayer’s Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and the Greek-English Lexicon of Liddell, Scott, and Jones. Both of these sources are available on Google Books or Internet Archive. As the Liddell, Scott, and Jones hardback is quite expensive, the online format may be more useful and accessible to many readers. The Thayer lexicon is the standard for New Testament Greek and the Liddell lexicon is the standard for nearly all other works.

The preface to John Thornton’s A Cultural History of the Atlantic World, 1250-1820 offers a compelling reason for studying in original languages when possible: 

In many languages, there is not a perfect fit between the semantic field of a word in one language and the semantic field in another, and thus even the best translators must choose one out of two or perhaps even more words that fit in that field.(xv) 

Thornton’s point is well taken. The subtlety of nuance can be hard to express from one language to another. Rather often the only way to properly convey the meaning is by way of explanation. An apt example can be found in the New Testament book of First Peter. Here the apostle writes, “For even hereunto were ye called: because Christ also suffered for us, leaving us an example, that ye should follow his steps” (2:21). In this verse example is a translation of the Greek root word ὑπογραμμός. This is a compound word that combines ὑπό, meaning under and γράφω, meaning to write. The literal meaning is the under writing. The idea is that of a student copying the alphabet under his teacher’s example to learn to write properly. The English word example can only relay an over simplified view of the term. The biblical lesson is to impress upon the reader the need of staying close to the Lord’s example, because straying from it causes the copy to become less and less like the original the further it moves away from it.

 

 

When an Apology is Not Pardon: Fifth Week

 

The word for the blog this week is “apology.” Likely unknown to most people, this word has a very different classical meaning than is found today. Current use is almost always to say that one is sorry for some deed done thought offensive or hurtful to another. The original Greek meaning is very different.

Johnson states that the English word comes from the Greek root ἀπολογία – meaning a reasoned defense. Johnson’s meaning is a “defence” or “excuse.” He says further that it “generally signifies rather excuse than vindication.” It is this shift from defense (“vindication”) to “excuse” that brought the word into its current usage. The earliest example of “apology” given in the Oxford English Dictionary is from 1533 and concerns a defense given by Sir Thomas More after he had “given over” the Office of Lord Chancellor of England. More was ousted from his chancellorship for refusing to accede to Crown authority over the authority of the Catholic Church, which refusal led to his execution in 1535. This usage is consistent with the Greek. 

However, the OED also records early uses of “apology” in its common modern meaning. As early as 1597, Shakespeare employs the usage in Richard III, where Richard Duke of Gloucester assures his lord Buckingham that the lord need make no apology but ought rather to pardon him. The contextual connection of “apology” with pardon declares its use as an appeal for forgiveness.

As might be guessed, the Greek New Testament uses ἀπολογία several times. Acts chapters twenty-one and twenty-two offer the account of Paul’s arrest at the Temple in Jerusalem. While being taken to the Antoine soldiers’ barracks (castle, KJV) Paul petitioned the Roman commander that he be allowed to speak to the Jews, gathered about him, who had instigated his arrest. The apostle began his speaking, saying, “Men, brethren, and fathers, hear ye my defence which I make now unto you” (Acts 22:1, emp. mine). “Defence” is a translation of the Greek root ἀπολογία. Paul was saying – Hear my apology. His defense continued unto the twenty-first verse when he was stopped by his audience. Paul gave proofs of his conversion to Christianity, his commitment to the work of the Lord, and of the Gospel itself. His defense was reasoned from one step to the next, each building on the previous – the hallmarks of a logical apology.

Another example of an apology is one much more contemporary than the days of Paul, Thomas More, or Shakespeare. Abraham Lincoln, sixteenth president of the United States, constitutionalist, and advocate for American union, spoke eloquently on behalf of the “perpetuity” of the union of the states that form this country. In his First Inaugural speech, March 04, 1861, Lincoln argued that a state of perpetual union exists between the American states. Universal law and the Constitution were the basis for the “perpetuity.” Action by any state by its own initiative to dissolve the constitutional union was unlawful, rendering any state law affecting secession “void.” Lincoln’s conclusion was that the Union was stronger than any state alone and subject only to the sovereign power of the people, as a whole. Lincoln’s speech is a great apology for the American Union.

Though one often hears and even uses the term “apology” to ask pardon or forgiveness, ἀπολογία has a long and illustrious history found in great oration, brave defiance, and irresistible reasoning, leaving honorable examples to a contemporary audience willing to learn the lessons.

 

 

The "Antarctick" -- Interesting in Name, Condition, and Vital to Human Life

 

Our week’s word of interest is “antarctick.” This is certainly a word with which many people are familiar – especially if they are an ornithophile (and of one species in particular). However, there are a few interesting matters associated with the actual word. Johnson defines it as “The southern pole, so called, as opposite to the northern.” Further, he writes that it derives from two Greek roots: ἀντί (anti) and ἄρκτος (arktos). The prefix anti is often used in the English lexicon and is a term of opposition. Indeed, the original sense of the Greek, from which the English is borrowed, is “over against” or opposite. The second Greek word, ἄρκτος (arktos), means “bear, esp[ecially] Ursus arctos, brown bear” as used by Herodotus, the fifth century BC Greek historian, when he described the western parts of ancient Libya being full of wild beasts such as “οἱ ἐλέφαντές τε καὶ ἄρκτοι” (elephants and bears) in his Histories (4.191). The Greek term also relates to the constellation in the northern sky, Ursa Major and the North generally (Can you hear Arctic in ἄρκτος?). It is to the North that Johnson subscribes his use of the Greek noun. When he joins ἀντί and ἄρκτος he is literally saying “opposite the North.” Of course, this is exactly the geographic position of Antarctica, in the South, compared to the Arctic, in the North.

Interestingly, when considering the Arctic, the North country, and bears, one might assume that Ursus arctos (quite literally North bear) would be the taxonomic designation given to polar bears but that is not the case. Polar bears are Thalarctos maritimus – Thalarctos meaning sea-bear and incidentally taken from the Greek words for "sea" and "bear." Certainly such a classification is apt, for polar bears are supremely bears of the sea, whereas, brown bears may live in northern reaches but are not seagoing by choice.

Antarctica is worthy of consideration for many reasons. It is the only continent on the planet unsuited to permanent human settlement. The harshest conditions of land and sea are found there and one the seas about it. Antarctica is the coldest place on Earth and exceedingly dry. How then is there so much accumulated snow and ice on the continent? The answer is simple – what falls hardy ever melts!

Given the connections between ἄρκτος, bears, and the Artic that Antarctica would have indigenous bears, but no bears live on Antarctica. Actually, there are few species that live on Antarctica, even for part of the year, compared to the other continents – a testament to the extreme conditions. Though the land has few inhabitants, the surrounding seas teem with life throughout the year and the cyclical temperature changes of the Antarctic waters fuel the oceans of the world.

There is a great deal more to “antarctick” than merely the pole opposite that in the North, though that limited description is true. The habitat and environmental processes unique to Antarctica and its seas are vital to a properly functioning Earth and thus to the well-being of human beings. Though easily lost from the minds of many, our most southerly continent is worthy of consideration in name and substance.

John Adams the Anti-Agrammatist: Third Week

An interesting recent word from Johnson’s 1773 edition is “agrammatist.” Johnson defines it as: “An illiterate man.” He says the word comes from α and γράμμα (gramma). The Greek α provides the negation, just as the a in agnostic means: not. Gnostic comes from the Greek word γνῶσις (gnosis) which means: knowledge or knowing. When one adds the negation of a, the meaning becomes: not knowing. Hence, the agnostic is one who professes some thing(s) is (are) unknowable. Next is γράμμα. This Greek root means among other similar things: letters, the alphabet. An agrammatist is literally someone without letters. In a former age when there was greater illiteracy, a man who could read and write was considered a man of letters. This was a prestigious designation. Johnson’s “illiterate man” was not a man of letters.

It is of note that the ability to read and write in one’s own language is surely a blessing and sadly one that is often taken for granted among the American masses. To relate a personal story on this point may illustrate its potency. My grandfather was born in a rural part of Arkansas in 1903. The extent of his formal education was the third grade. Obviously, his ability to read and write was severely limited. How did this come about? He was reared in a time without compulsory education laws and in a region where manual labor was valued more than “book-learning.” My great-grandfather did not see the value of classroom education, so did not insist that my grandfather continue with his. This was taken to the extreme with one of my grandfather’s sisters who was not allowed any education whatever and continued in a child-like state even unto and through her adult years. Bad decisions and disvaluing education resulted in a life-long impediment for my grandfather, stifling his self-confidence and making him very prone to manipulation by those with more education. What is worse, the same sort of circumstance passed on to my father, with similar results.

I relate this information not to be melodramatic but simply to show what kind of tragedy an under-appreciation for the ability to read and write can bring. Being able to read, and not only read but comprehend what one reads, is a powerful thing that opens unimagined paths to opportunity and achievement. Sadly, too few have the attitude of John Adams, a contemporary of Johnson’s time. Reflecting in 1804 on his formative years at Harvard, Adams wrote, “I soon perceived a growing Curiosity, a Love of Books and a fondness for Study, which dissipated all my Inclination for Sports, and even for the Society of the Ladies. I read forever…” (Diary of John Adams from November 30, 1804. A link to that page has been added on the right for those who might want to browse the diary on the Massachusetts Historical Society’s website). Interestingly, the very time about which Adams was writing was when Johnson’s 1755 first edition was published. Adams attended Harvard from 1751 to 1754. John Adams was certainly the antithesis of Johnson’s “agrammatist” becoming one the America’s most well-read and well- educated men of the eighteenth century.

Until next week.

John

 

Johnson's Erstwhile "Aches" and Pains of Etymology: Second Week

 

I was introduced this week to the world of XML. The Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary Project Online database uses XML. This is not in the least foreign to the database and website environment, but it was a foreign environment to me. I have not dipped my toe in the waters of the “programming” world since junior high school – about thirty-five years ago. That was before Windows 95 and even before Windows 3.1! Though the UI (user-interface) looks quite different than the screens I used last semester the input protocol is not so different as might be imagined. I am still proofing, correcting, and recording the corrections – just as before. I just got started in the database this week, so I hope next week will see me up and humming. 

A Greek etymology close to the top of my list is for the word “ache.” Johnson writes that this English noun comes from the Greek root ἄχος (akos). The English spelling is not so removed from the Greek. The meaning is the same. In Greek it means “pain.” In English it means “pain.” 

However, The Oxford English Dictionary argues that the proper older spelling is ake and has no connection to the Greek ἄχος at all. The Greek connection and the change in spelling they think was reinforced and perpetuated by Johnson’s entry which states that “ache” is the better spelling and it has its history in ἄχος. The OED says the word is Old English and may come from German and Dutch roots. Comparing “ache” and ἄχος in spelling and meaning, the confusion is rather easy to see. Linguistic studies since the time of Johnson have added considerable information about word histories. A quick perusal of the Latin lexicon seems to show that “ache” did not come through Latin into the beginnings of English (neither does the OED mention a Latin etymology). This is rather telling from my experience because many English words travel backward to Greek through Latin. The relationship between Greek and Latin is easily comprehended when one understands that they were contemporary languages. Greek was the normal language of the Greek or Hellenistic world. As the Roman Empire expanded so did Latin. But that expansion was across a land already Hellenized centuries before, especially by Alexander and his army. Latin was laid over the top of a Greek lingua franca (universally adopted language). 

The first century A.D. language environment in the Mediterranean region is highlighted by this passage from the New Testament: “And a superscription also was written over him in letters of Greek, and Latin, and Hebrew, THIS IS THE KING OF THE JEWS” (Luke 23:38; cf. John 19:20). An inscription was put on the cross of Jesus in three languages. Why? Because Hebrew (or Aramaic) was the native language of the Jews, but they lived in a Roman suzerainty (I will let you look that one up yourself) that was part of the greater Greek speaking world. 

I hope that I am making it sufficiently clear that studying language is studying the history of the world. Sometimes its in broad strokes, sometimes its in tiny details. However it comes – it’s always fascinating. 

Until next week.

John

A New Semester and New Work: First Week

This week’s blog post opens a new semester and a new series of posts to share. I am continuing my work with the dictionary project, but I am functioning in a new role. This semester I will be concentrating on correcting the Greek etymologies in Johnson’s fourth edition from 1773. I consider it a singular honor to be asked to continue in the project and to specialize in Greek.

One may now ask how I came to study Greek and why it is important to me. The short answer is that I came to study Greek while in preacher training school and it is supremely important to me because it is the original language of the New Testament. The specific Greek is Koine rather than Classical. Because of my careful research into Koine Greek and translating various passages of the New Testament, I am convinced that one cannot thoroughly and deeply understand the New Testament without at least a basic knowledge of its original Greek text. Please understand that I am not saying that one cannot understand the New Testament at all without Greek, but am I speaking of deep understanding. The short answer of why such is the case is that many Greek words cannot be translated by a single English word. The structure of the two languages is different. Greek is a more precise language than English and the precision requires a careful and nuanced translation into English to maintain the fullness of the meaning. Its is the fullness of meaning that I refer to as being practically impossible to grasp from the English alone. 

This now leads to the necessity of a brief explanation of the word Koine (pronounced koinā). It comes from the Greek root κοινός (koinos) meaning: common or general. Thus, Koine Greek is common Greek – the Greek in common use throughout the Mediterranean region in the first century. It was once thought that Biblical Greek was a special divine form of Greek. Archaeological discoveries in the Middle East have since shown that the Greek of the New Testament is the Greek used by ordinary people of the time. 

Another reason why Greek is important to me is that as a native English speaker many words of the language I speak derive from Greek. The Oxford English Dictionary website, through their “Advanced Search” tab returns 7935 entries as deriving from Greek. A few familiar words in the list are: acme, aesthetic, agnostic, barometer, basilica, calligraphy, characteristic, and many more. Greek and English are inseparably linked – knowing one helps you know the other. Want to expand your English vocabulary? Learn some Greek. 

To reduce redundancy, I have refrained from simply reintroducing myself in this post. If you are new to the blog, please peruse the earlier posts. They introduce the author of these posts and the dictionary project at UCF. My new work has not progressed yet beyond the preliminaries so hopefully next week I will have a more work specific post to offer. 

If you are new to the blog, thank you for spending a little of your time with me. If you are returning to blog, thank you for finding the material interesting enough to come again. 

Until next week.

John