The Curious Background of "Bible": Seventh Week

The word for this week is “bible.” This is rather ubiquitous word with a background more curious than some may suspect. Johnson says this word comes from βιβλιον (biblion). Johnson says this means “a book.” This accords with the general meaning offered by reliable Greek lexicons. However, what Johnson does not mention is the background for βιβλιον. Liddell and Scott (mentioned last week) states that βιβλιον comes from βίβλος (biblos). This word identifies the slices of papyrus plant pith that was used to make the writing material we call papyrus or what the Greeks would have called βίβλος. The name of the end product, a book or properly a scroll, was bound up in the material from which it was made.

The work a day writing material of the ancient Hellenistic world (Greek world) was papyrus sheets made from the papyrus plant. This plant was very common along the Nile River and is still found in various places in the Middle East. The pith of the plant was taken from its outer rind and split into strips. These strips were laid alongside one another until the desired width was achieved. On these strips was laid another set perpendicular to the first and the two adhered to one another by pressure and being left to dry. The individual sheets, about twelve inches square, were polished and joined end to end to make scrolls. The draw back to papyrus sheets and scrolls is their lack of durability in damp conditions. This is why ancient scrolls have survived in places like Qumran, near the Dead Sea (hence the Dead Sea Scrolls), which is one of the hottest and driest places on Earth. Papyrus has also survived in the dry environments found in many places in Egypt.

Βιβλιον and βιβλος mean book. When one says “Holy Bible” the phrase really means holy book, though “bible” is a generic word. Its generic use can be seen in such possible titles such as “The Baker’s Bible” or “The Shooter’s Bible.” The first simply describes a book specific to baking and the latter to those who use firearms. It is the word Holy that distinguishes the Scriptures from other books. Interestingly, the terms Bible and Holy Bible are not found in the King James Bible, though the Greek root  βιβλίον  is found numerous times in reference to the books of both the Old and New Testaments, collectively and individually.

Should any be wondering if the English word paper comes from papyrus or πάπῡρος (papuros) in Greek, it does by way of Latin’s papyrus and through the French word papier. Modern paper, from which books (βιβλία) are made, shares few characteristics with ancient papyrus sheets. Today’s paper is made of plant cellulose multi-directionally bonded to form sheets of nearly infinite sizes. “Multi-directionally bonded” is just a fancy way of saying the plant fibers are pressed together in a soup where the fibers may point in any direction. Papyrus sheets were more akin to modern-day multi-layer plywood than modern paper.

Until next week,

John 

There is More to the Alphabet Than Just the ABCs: Sixth Week

The word for this week’s blog is “alphabet.” Johnson tells us it comes from ἄλφα (alpha) and βῆτα ­(bāta). These, of course, are the first two letters of the Greek alphabet. The Greek word for “alphabet” is ἀλφάβητος (alphabātos) – also coming from the first two letters of the Greek alphabet. This is an example of synecdoche, in this context meaning to put a part for the whole. That is, a part of the letters, the a and the b, stands for all of the letters. Interestingly, synecdoche, comes from the Greek root word συνεκδοχή (sunekdoxā) which means to understand one thing by/with another.

I suppose it might be helpful at this point in our blog posts to address the Greek alphabet by way of a chart. Since Greek words are featured every week, such a chart might be helpful to those not already familiar with Greek. The chart offered is from the college textbook I used when I learned Greek.

 

Greek Letter	Name	Transliteration	Sound
α	alpha	a	father
β	beta	b	bible
γ	gamma	g	ǥone
δ	delta	d	dog
ε	epsilon	e	met
ζ	zeta	z	daze (dz)
η	eta	ē (ā)	obey
θ	theta	th	thing
ι	iota	i	intrigue
κ	kappa	k	kitchen
λ	lambda	l	law
μ	mu	m	mother
ν	nu	n	new
ξ	xi	x	axiom (xs)
ο	omicron	o	not
π	pi	p	peach
ρ	rho	r	rod
σ, ς	sigma	s	study
τ	tau	t	talk
υ	upsilon	u	book
φ	phi	ph	phone
χ	chi	ch	loch
ψ	psi	ps	lips
ω	omega	o	tone

 

Learning the alphabet and its pronunciation is a very good starting point. If you know the alphabet, lexicons become open to you. Being able to read Greek text is not necessary to still benefit from lexical study. Two primary lexical sources are: Thayer’s Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and the Greek-English Lexicon of Liddell, Scott, and Jones. Both of these sources are available on Google Books or Internet Archive. As the Liddell, Scott, and Jones hardback is quite expensive, the online format may be more useful and accessible to many readers. The Thayer lexicon is the standard for New Testament Greek and the Liddell lexicon is the standard for nearly all other works.

The preface to John Thornton’s A Cultural History of the Atlantic World, 1250-1820 offers a compelling reason for studying in original languages when possible: 

In many languages, there is not a perfect fit between the semantic field of a word in one language and the semantic field in another, and thus even the best translators must choose one out of two or perhaps even more words that fit in that field.(xv) 

Thornton’s point is well taken. The subtlety of nuance can be hard to express from one language to another. Rather often the only way to properly convey the meaning is by way of explanation. An apt example can be found in the New Testament book of First Peter. Here the apostle writes, “For even hereunto were ye called: because Christ also suffered for us, leaving us an example, that ye should follow his steps” (2:21). In this verse example is a translation of the Greek root word ὑπογραμμός. This is a compound word that combines ὑπό, meaning under and γράφω, meaning to write. The literal meaning is the under writing. The idea is that of a student copying the alphabet under his teacher’s example to learn to write properly. The English word example can only relay an over simplified view of the term. The biblical lesson is to impress upon the reader the need of staying close to the Lord’s example, because straying from it causes the copy to become less and less like the original the further it moves away from it.

 

 

When an Apology is Not Pardon: Fifth Week

 

The word for the blog this week is “apology.” Likely unknown to most people, this word has a very different classical meaning than is found today. Current use is almost always to say that one is sorry for some deed done thought offensive or hurtful to another. The original Greek meaning is very different.

Johnson states that the English word comes from the Greek root ἀπολογία – meaning a reasoned defense. Johnson’s meaning is a “defence” or “excuse.” He says further that it “generally signifies rather excuse than vindication.” It is this shift from defense (“vindication”) to “excuse” that brought the word into its current usage. The earliest example of “apology” given in the Oxford English Dictionary is from 1533 and concerns a defense given by Sir Thomas More after he had “given over” the Office of Lord Chancellor of England. More was ousted from his chancellorship for refusing to accede to Crown authority over the authority of the Catholic Church, which refusal led to his execution in 1535. This usage is consistent with the Greek. 

However, the OED also records early uses of “apology” in its common modern meaning. As early as 1597, Shakespeare employs the usage in Richard III, where Richard Duke of Gloucester assures his lord Buckingham that the lord need make no apology but ought rather to pardon him. The contextual connection of “apology” with pardon declares its use as an appeal for forgiveness.

As might be guessed, the Greek New Testament uses ἀπολογία several times. Acts chapters twenty-one and twenty-two offer the account of Paul’s arrest at the Temple in Jerusalem. While being taken to the Antoine soldiers’ barracks (castle, KJV) Paul petitioned the Roman commander that he be allowed to speak to the Jews, gathered about him, who had instigated his arrest. The apostle began his speaking, saying, “Men, brethren, and fathers, hear ye my defence which I make now unto you” (Acts 22:1, emp. mine). “Defence” is a translation of the Greek root ἀπολογία. Paul was saying – Hear my apology. His defense continued unto the twenty-first verse when he was stopped by his audience. Paul gave proofs of his conversion to Christianity, his commitment to the work of the Lord, and of the Gospel itself. His defense was reasoned from one step to the next, each building on the previous – the hallmarks of a logical apology.

Another example of an apology is one much more contemporary than the days of Paul, Thomas More, or Shakespeare. Abraham Lincoln, sixteenth president of the United States, constitutionalist, and advocate for American union, spoke eloquently on behalf of the “perpetuity” of the union of the states that form this country. In his First Inaugural speech, March 04, 1861, Lincoln argued that a state of perpetual union exists between the American states. Universal law and the Constitution were the basis for the “perpetuity.” Action by any state by its own initiative to dissolve the constitutional union was unlawful, rendering any state law affecting secession “void.” Lincoln’s conclusion was that the Union was stronger than any state alone and subject only to the sovereign power of the people, as a whole. Lincoln’s speech is a great apology for the American Union.

Though one often hears and even uses the term “apology” to ask pardon or forgiveness, ἀπολογία has a long and illustrious history found in great oration, brave defiance, and irresistible reasoning, leaving honorable examples to a contemporary audience willing to learn the lessons.

 

 

The "Antarctick" -- Interesting in Name, Condition, and Vital to Human Life

 

Our week’s word of interest is “antarctick.” This is certainly a word with which many people are familiar – especially if they are an ornithophile (and of one species in particular). However, there are a few interesting matters associated with the actual word. Johnson defines it as “The southern pole, so called, as opposite to the northern.” Further, he writes that it derives from two Greek roots: ἀντί (anti) and ἄρκτος (arktos). The prefix anti is often used in the English lexicon and is a term of opposition. Indeed, the original sense of the Greek, from which the English is borrowed, is “over against” or opposite. The second Greek word, ἄρκτος (arktos), means “bear, esp[ecially] Ursus arctos, brown bear” as used by Herodotus, the fifth century BC Greek historian, when he described the western parts of ancient Libya being full of wild beasts such as “οἱ ἐλέφαντές τε καὶ ἄρκτοι” (elephants and bears) in his Histories (4.191). The Greek term also relates to the constellation in the northern sky, Ursa Major and the North generally (Can you hear Arctic in ἄρκτος?). It is to the North that Johnson subscribes his use of the Greek noun. When he joins ἀντί and ἄρκτος he is literally saying “opposite the North.” Of course, this is exactly the geographic position of Antarctica, in the South, compared to the Arctic, in the North.

Interestingly, when considering the Arctic, the North country, and bears, one might assume that Ursus arctos (quite literally North bear) would be the taxonomic designation given to polar bears but that is not the case. Polar bears are Thalarctos maritimus – Thalarctos meaning sea-bear and incidentally taken from the Greek words for "sea" and "bear." Certainly such a classification is apt, for polar bears are supremely bears of the sea, whereas, brown bears may live in northern reaches but are not seagoing by choice.

Antarctica is worthy of consideration for many reasons. It is the only continent on the planet unsuited to permanent human settlement. The harshest conditions of land and sea are found there and one the seas about it. Antarctica is the coldest place on Earth and exceedingly dry. How then is there so much accumulated snow and ice on the continent? The answer is simple – what falls hardy ever melts!

Given the connections between ἄρκτος, bears, and the Artic that Antarctica would have indigenous bears, but no bears live on Antarctica. Actually, there are few species that live on Antarctica, even for part of the year, compared to the other continents – a testament to the extreme conditions. Though the land has few inhabitants, the surrounding seas teem with life throughout the year and the cyclical temperature changes of the Antarctic waters fuel the oceans of the world.

There is a great deal more to “antarctick” than merely the pole opposite that in the North, though that limited description is true. The habitat and environmental processes unique to Antarctica and its seas are vital to a properly functioning Earth and thus to the well-being of human beings. Though easily lost from the minds of many, our most southerly continent is worthy of consideration in name and substance.

John Adams the Anti-Agrammatist: Third Week

An interesting recent word from Johnson’s 1773 edition is “agrammatist.” Johnson defines it as: “An illiterate man.” He says the word comes from α and γράμμα (gramma). The Greek α provides the negation, just as the a in agnostic means: not. Gnostic comes from the Greek word γνῶσις (gnosis) which means: knowledge or knowing. When one adds the negation of a, the meaning becomes: not knowing. Hence, the agnostic is one who professes some thing(s) is (are) unknowable. Next is γράμμα. This Greek root means among other similar things: letters, the alphabet. An agrammatist is literally someone without letters. In a former age when there was greater illiteracy, a man who could read and write was considered a man of letters. This was a prestigious designation. Johnson’s “illiterate man” was not a man of letters.

It is of note that the ability to read and write in one’s own language is surely a blessing and sadly one that is often taken for granted among the American masses. To relate a personal story on this point may illustrate its potency. My grandfather was born in a rural part of Arkansas in 1903. The extent of his formal education was the third grade. Obviously, his ability to read and write was severely limited. How did this come about? He was reared in a time without compulsory education laws and in a region where manual labor was valued more than “book-learning.” My great-grandfather did not see the value of classroom education, so did not insist that my grandfather continue with his. This was taken to the extreme with one of my grandfather’s sisters who was not allowed any education whatever and continued in a child-like state even unto and through her adult years. Bad decisions and disvaluing education resulted in a life-long impediment for my grandfather, stifling his self-confidence and making him very prone to manipulation by those with more education. What is worse, the same sort of circumstance passed on to my father, with similar results.

I relate this information not to be melodramatic but simply to show what kind of tragedy an under-appreciation for the ability to read and write can bring. Being able to read, and not only read but comprehend what one reads, is a powerful thing that opens unimagined paths to opportunity and achievement. Sadly, too few have the attitude of John Adams, a contemporary of Johnson’s time. Reflecting in 1804 on his formative years at Harvard, Adams wrote, “I soon perceived a growing Curiosity, a Love of Books and a fondness for Study, which dissipated all my Inclination for Sports, and even for the Society of the Ladies. I read forever…” (Diary of John Adams from November 30, 1804. A link to that page has been added on the right for those who might want to browse the diary on the Massachusetts Historical Society’s website). Interestingly, the very time about which Adams was writing was when Johnson’s 1755 first edition was published. Adams attended Harvard from 1751 to 1754. John Adams was certainly the antithesis of Johnson’s “agrammatist” becoming one the America’s most well-read and well- educated men of the eighteenth century.

Until next week.

John

 

Johnson's Erstwhile "Aches" and Pains of Etymology: Second Week

 

I was introduced this week to the world of XML. The Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary Project Online database uses XML. This is not in the least foreign to the database and website environment, but it was a foreign environment to me. I have not dipped my toe in the waters of the “programming” world since junior high school – about thirty-five years ago. That was before Windows 95 and even before Windows 3.1! Though the UI (user-interface) looks quite different than the screens I used last semester the input protocol is not so different as might be imagined. I am still proofing, correcting, and recording the corrections – just as before. I just got started in the database this week, so I hope next week will see me up and humming. 

A Greek etymology close to the top of my list is for the word “ache.” Johnson writes that this English noun comes from the Greek root ἄχος (akos). The English spelling is not so removed from the Greek. The meaning is the same. In Greek it means “pain.” In English it means “pain.” 

However, The Oxford English Dictionary argues that the proper older spelling is ake and has no connection to the Greek ἄχος at all. The Greek connection and the change in spelling they think was reinforced and perpetuated by Johnson’s entry which states that “ache” is the better spelling and it has its history in ἄχος. The OED says the word is Old English and may come from German and Dutch roots. Comparing “ache” and ἄχος in spelling and meaning, the confusion is rather easy to see. Linguistic studies since the time of Johnson have added considerable information about word histories. A quick perusal of the Latin lexicon seems to show that “ache” did not come through Latin into the beginnings of English (neither does the OED mention a Latin etymology). This is rather telling from my experience because many English words travel backward to Greek through Latin. The relationship between Greek and Latin is easily comprehended when one understands that they were contemporary languages. Greek was the normal language of the Greek or Hellenistic world. As the Roman Empire expanded so did Latin. But that expansion was across a land already Hellenized centuries before, especially by Alexander and his army. Latin was laid over the top of a Greek lingua franca (universally adopted language). 

The first century A.D. language environment in the Mediterranean region is highlighted by this passage from the New Testament: “And a superscription also was written over him in letters of Greek, and Latin, and Hebrew, THIS IS THE KING OF THE JEWS” (Luke 23:38; cf. John 19:20). An inscription was put on the cross of Jesus in three languages. Why? Because Hebrew (or Aramaic) was the native language of the Jews, but they lived in a Roman suzerainty (I will let you look that one up yourself) that was part of the greater Greek speaking world. 

I hope that I am making it sufficiently clear that studying language is studying the history of the world. Sometimes its in broad strokes, sometimes its in tiny details. However it comes – it’s always fascinating. 

Until next week.

John

A New Semester and New Work: First Week

This week’s blog post opens a new semester and a new series of posts to share. I am continuing my work with the dictionary project, but I am functioning in a new role. This semester I will be concentrating on correcting the Greek etymologies in Johnson’s fourth edition from 1773. I consider it a singular honor to be asked to continue in the project and to specialize in Greek.

One may now ask how I came to study Greek and why it is important to me. The short answer is that I came to study Greek while in preacher training school and it is supremely important to me because it is the original language of the New Testament. The specific Greek is Koine rather than Classical. Because of my careful research into Koine Greek and translating various passages of the New Testament, I am convinced that one cannot thoroughly and deeply understand the New Testament without at least a basic knowledge of its original Greek text. Please understand that I am not saying that one cannot understand the New Testament at all without Greek, but am I speaking of deep understanding. The short answer of why such is the case is that many Greek words cannot be translated by a single English word. The structure of the two languages is different. Greek is a more precise language than English and the precision requires a careful and nuanced translation into English to maintain the fullness of the meaning. Its is the fullness of meaning that I refer to as being practically impossible to grasp from the English alone. 

This now leads to the necessity of a brief explanation of the word Koine (pronounced koinā). It comes from the Greek root κοινός (koinos) meaning: common or general. Thus, Koine Greek is common Greek – the Greek in common use throughout the Mediterranean region in the first century. It was once thought that Biblical Greek was a special divine form of Greek. Archaeological discoveries in the Middle East have since shown that the Greek of the New Testament is the Greek used by ordinary people of the time. 

Another reason why Greek is important to me is that as a native English speaker many words of the language I speak derive from Greek. The Oxford English Dictionary website, through their “Advanced Search” tab returns 7935 entries as deriving from Greek. A few familiar words in the list are: acme, aesthetic, agnostic, barometer, basilica, calligraphy, characteristic, and many more. Greek and English are inseparably linked – knowing one helps you know the other. Want to expand your English vocabulary? Learn some Greek. 

To reduce redundancy, I have refrained from simply reintroducing myself in this post. If you are new to the blog, please peruse the earlier posts. They introduce the author of these posts and the dictionary project at UCF. My new work has not progressed yet beyond the preliminaries so hopefully next week I will have a more work specific post to offer. 

If you are new to the blog, thank you for spending a little of your time with me. If you are returning to blog, thank you for finding the material interesting enough to come again. 

Until next week.

John